Treatments: Medications: Anticholinergics: These drugs (e.g., oxybutynin, tolterodine) block the action of acetylcholine on the bladder, reducing involuntary contractions. Beta-3 adrenergic agonists: Medications like mirabegron work by relaxing the bladder muscle and increasing its capacity. Topical estrogen (for postmenopausal women): This can help improve bladder function by strengthening the tissues in the urinary tract.

Invasive Treatments (if medications are ineffective): Botulinum toxin (Botox) injections: Injecting Botox into the bladder muscle can temporarily paralyze it, reducing involuntary contractions.

The carina is the most important structure for the cough reflex.

Reasoning:

The cough reflex is primarily triggered by irritation of the carina, which is the point where the trachea bifurcates into the main bronchi. This region has a high density of mechanoreceptors that are extremely sensitive to stimuli such as dust, smoke, or secretions. When these receptors are activated, they send signals via the vagus nerve to the cough center in the medulla, initiating the reflex.

While the larynx, oropharynx, and bronchi also contain sensory receptors that can trigger a cough, the carina is the most sensitive and crucial structure for this reflex.

Good try, PDA is 1 in 2000 but VSD even more common. Both are failures to ‘finish patching up’ as you put it. Good analogy!

Both Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD) and Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) involve structures in the heart that fail to close as they should. However, they differ in terms of location and function: Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA): This is a blood vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta in a fetus. It normally closes shortly after birth. Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD): This involves a hole in the septum, the wall that divides the left and right ventricles of the heart. Normally, this wall is completely closed.